Iphone 4 Display

by Brian Klug & Anand Lal Shimpi on 6/30/2010 4:06:00 AM Posted in Smartphones , Gadgets , Apple , iPhone 4

Screen - Retina Display

Right out of the box, the iPhone 4's new 326 PPI, 960x640, 3.5" display is arguably the single most striking change the new iPhone brings. In a word, it's dazzling. Text and high res images look amazingly sharp on the iPhone 4’s retina display. It’s an improvement over the 800 x 480 AMOLED screens that have been shipping on most Android phones. But if you’re comparing it to an iPhone 3GS the difference is huge.

iPhone 3GS
iPhone 4
Text on the Google Nexus One
Text on the iPhone 4

The dot pitch is truly remarkable, so much so that Apple makes the claim that their display outresolves the human eye; its advertised ability to do so has earned it a new Apple tradename, "retina display."

Text on the HTC EVO 4
Text on the iPhone 4
AnandTech Logo on the EVO 4G
AnandTech Logo on the iPhone 4

Immediately after hearing Apple's claim that the Retina Display outresolves the human eye, I snapped into optics mode and crunched the numbers, and tweeted that the results were valid.
In the days that followed, there was considerable debate about the validity of Apple's claims. However, nearly all of the debate really just hinged on a debate over angular resolution of the human eye, and a little more over viewing distance. They're both entirely conventions.

As you've probably discovered by now, the human eye resolution can really only be characterized in angular subtense. Hold something closer to your eye, and you can see smaller features better (in theory), move it further away, and you can't make out small spatial details. The minimum angle visible with the human eye is the angle at which features (for the most common definition, a black and white square wave) stop being visible, and are indistinguishable from each other.

Most measures of visual acuity test with this implicitly - the Snellen eye chart's use of the capital "E" is literally a perfect example, which has given rise to a "tumbling E" eye chart. At twenty feet, the capital E subtends 5 minutes of arc, and conveniently has five half cycles of white to black (from top to bottom). So 20/20 implicitly implies an angular resolution of 1 arcminute (1/60 degrees).

As an Optical Sciences and Engineering undergrad, I've had 1 arcminute drilled into my head more times than I can count as being the "normal" angular resolution of the human eye system. In practice, this is 20/20 vision, which is "normal," yet not perhaps the absolute maximum for human perfection. We can play games of course and argue that a small subset of the population has better than normal uncorrected vision, and thus an angular resolution of below 1 arcminute. I have above average uncorrected vision, which I've measured to be 20/15 on average, giving an angular resolution of approximately 0.75 arcminutes. Of course, the definitions stem from the spacing of cones in the fovea, the highest resolution part of the retina.

The other informational quantity needed to test the Retina Display claims is viewing distance. Again, there's a commonly agreed upon convention - standard viewing distance is considered to be 1 foot. This is another drilled into my brain number tossed around for comfortable viewing and reading. In practice, you can focus on objects much closer to your eye - this is called the near point and is often given as 10 inches, though as you get closer you increase strain aren't likely to keep it here.

Maybe not exactly the limit, but close enough.

Given the two most common standards tossed around, 1 arcminute and 12 inches, do the math out and you'll arrive at around 286 pixels per inch as the limit for eye resolving power, comfortably below the 326 on the Retina Display. Move to 0.75 arcminutes at 12 inches, and it's 382 pixels per inch, higher than the Retina Display. Honestly, I can't see the pixels at 12 inches.
Of course, the real story is even more complicated. Remember how the definition comes with the implicit assumption that we're dealing with a square wave pattern from white to black? That's a factor too - the contrast of the two pixels. Lower the contrast, and the eye's ability to pick out features decreases even more. So far, everything we've talked about has been first order, and without aberrations. Toss in spherical and astigmatism, two aberrations common to the eye system, and eye performance drops way more.

The human eye system is actually pretty poor, and shockingly easy to outresolve. In fact, if you saw the image your eye forms on your retina, you'd likely be appalled; it's your brain that makes the system usable. But at the end of the day, Apple's claims that the display outresolves the human eye are good enough for us.

http://www.anandtech.com/show/3794/the-iphone-4-review/4

Iphone 4 Battery Benchmatk

Brian Klug & Anand Lal Shimpi on 6/30/2010 4:06:00 AM Posted in Smartphones , Gadgets , Apple , iPhone 4

Incredible Battery Life

I’ve publicly praised Apple for its honesty in reporting battery life over the past couple of years, and the iPhone 4 gives me no reason to stop.

The 4 has an integrated 5.25Whr battery. That’s around 95% of the battery capacity of the HTC EVO 4G, despite having much lower power frequirements. It’s also a 16% increase over the 4.51Whr battery that was in the iPhone 3GS. This means at bare minimum, assuming the iPhone 4 doesn’t draw any more power than the 3GS, we should get 16% more battery life.

In reality, we get much more.

When Apple introduced the iPhone 3G it dropped battery life to a level that we’d been stuck at ever since. The 3GS improved battery life a bit through better CPU power efficiency but you still didn’t have enough juice to get through a day without charging.

The iPhone 4 changes all of that. The combination of a larger battery and a more power efficient SoC results in an incredible amount of battery life.

Our first test is a basic web browsing benchmark. We've scripted almost two dozen webpages to load, pause for 20 seconds, then forward on to the next page. None of the pages use any Flash. This process repeats until the battery is dead. Screen brightness on the iPhones was set to 50% and the screens remained on the whole time.

Battery life improved nearly 38% with the iPhone 4. It's clear that while the A4 improved performance, the real improvement was in battery life. This test has enough idle time where good power management and low idle power can really impact the results. There's simply no other similar smartphone that can touch the 4's battery life.

We then repeated the same test over WiFi instead of 3G:

Apple claims the iPhone 4 will last for up to 10 hours over WiFi, we measured just under that at 9.96 hours. The improvement here is only 12.8%, which tells me that we're nearing the limit of how efficiently Apple can manage power in WiFi mode. There's a wall that we're quickly approaching with this current architecture.

To measure talk time we play MP3s on repeat into the mic of a phone and use it to call the phone being tested. The process continues until the test phone dies. In this case the screen is allowed to go to sleep, as it normally would be if you were talking on the phone:

Apple promised up to 7 hours of 3G talk time with the iPhone 4. We measured 7.47 hours. That's an increase of 54.9% over the iPhone 3GS. While in a phone call the majority of the A4 SoC is powered down, so the efficiency improvements here have to do with how much less power the A4 consumes while off and the new Skyworks 3G modem (the iPhone 3GS used an Infineon modem).

In our iOS 4 review we looked at the impact multitasking had on the iPhone 3GS' web browsing battery life. I ran our 3G web browsing test while playing music through Pandora in the background. I repeated the test with the iPhone 4 for today's article:

We actually see our largest battery life improvement in this test. With a 57.7% increase in battery life over the 3GS, the iPhone 4 is not only more efficient at idle workloads but also when the SoC is constantly busy. The A4 SoC is rumored to be built on a 45nm process compared to the 65nm SoC used in the 3GS. With a moderate increase in clock speed we should be seeing a lot of the power savings that a full node shrink brings to the table.

The battery life offered by the iPhone 4 is spectacular. My iPhone 3GS could hardly get through a full day of work while traveling, I'd always need to hunt for an outlet before heading into my dinner meeting. I'm about to take my first trip with the iPhone 4 but I get the feeling that I might finally be able to make it through dinner.

Early reports of 20 and 30 hours of battery life are simply exaggerated. They're only possible if you let the phone idle in your pocket for the majority of that time. In other words, if you don't use the phone it lasts for a long time. While that's a testament to the platform's incredible idle power, the real world usage is good enough to stand on its own. It's better than any iPhone or Android phone I've tested thus far.

http://www.anandtech.com/show/3794/the-iphone-4-review/13

Iphone 4 Performance Benchmark

by Brian Klug & Anand Lal Shimpi on 6/30/2010 4:06:00 AM Posted in Smartphones , Gadgets , Apple , iPhone 4

Performance

When the 4 was announced, my curiosity (and perhaps yours as well?) was about the flavor of Apple’s A4 SoC inside the phone. The rumor was that the A4 in the iPhone 4 had a full 512MB of memory, compared to 256MB in the iPad’s A4. iFixit took an iPhone 4 apart (with relative ease I might add) and confirmed the presence of 512MB. Look at the A4 in this picture, the Samsung part number on the right edge of the chip starts out K4X4G. The K4X denotes a Samsung mobile

DRAM and the 4G refers to its density: 4Gbit or 512MB.

More memory should mean a smoother multitasking experience on the iPhone 4. Remember that iOS 4 keeps all fast task switching enabled apps resident in memory even after you’ve switched away from them. They are only kicked out of memory if you run low or if you force quit them. With more memory you should be able to keep more apps in memory without unwillingly forcing them out. The 512MB of RAM should also give the OS more breathing room in lighter multitasking scenarios, a problem many are already seeing on the iPhone 3GS running iOS 4. In practice the 4 is smoother when running iOS 4. There are still some hiccups but not as bad as on the 3GS, and definitely not as bad as on the 3G. The OS was clearly designed with the iPhone 4 as the performance target.

The big question that remains is what clock speed the iPhone 4’s A4 is running at. The assumption was 1GHz however Apple was very careful not to mention clock speed, unlike at the iPad launch. Saying nothing usually means there’s nothing good to say.

I ran a whole bunch of benchmarks on the iPhone 4 and the iPhone 3GS running iOS 4 to try and figure out what CPU speed we might be dealing with. The early reviews imply that the A4 in the iPhone 4 is running at a speed greater than the 3GS’s 600MHz, but slower than the iPad’s 1GHz.

Let’s try and find out what it’s really running at.

We’ll start with the real world tests, first SunSpider. A javascript performance test this benchmark is completely network independent but it measures the performance of the browser as well as the underlying hardware. It is small enough to make memory size differences negligible so between the two iPhones we should be seeing a pure CPU comparison:

The iPhone 4 manages a time that’s 25% faster. Note that this test is just as much about the software stack as it is about CPU/platform performance. The Froyo update makes the Nexus One ridiculously fast in this benchmark. It just shows you how much room there is to improve performance on these Android handsets. The next leapfrog is going to be once the entire Android world moves to 2.2.

Next up is the Rightware BrowserMark. This test combines JavaScript and HTML rendering performance:

BrowserMark spits out an overall score but with no indication of what the score actually means. In this case we’re looking at 18.4% better performance than the iPhone 3GS. The iPad is 34% faster than the 4, which supports the theory of the A4 running at ~750MHz in the new iPhone.

There's also the possibility that the A4 CPU clock varies depending on load and other factors but the run to run consistency in all of our tests seems to indicate otherwise. We also can't ignore the fact that the iPad and iPhone now run vastly different OS revisions. In some cases iOS 4 actually takes a step back in performance compared to iOS 3.2. That undoubtedly makes the iPad vs. iPhone 4 comparison about much more than CPU performance.

Froyo's improved Javascript performance sends the Nexus One nearly to the top of the list here, only bested by the iPad. While Apple has definitely improved performance with the iPhone 4, it seems that it will only take a software update for Android phones to surpass it.

To measure web browsing performance I downloaded a bunch of different web pages and saved as much of them as possible locally on a server. I used WiFi on all of the devices to connect to my local server and timed average load time. I repeated the test at least 3 times and threw out any unusually high or low numbers. Performance was from a clean restart with no additional programs running in memory.

Note that these numbers aren't comparable to other reviews as we've updated software versions on two of the phones. The iPhone 3GS is now running iOS 4 which resulted in some numbers going up while others went down. And the Google Nexus One is running the officially released build of Android 2.2, codenamed Froyo.

What these tests should show is the overall performance of the platform when all network bottlenecks are removed. Obviously hiding in a tunnel under a lead umbrella will make any phone slow, but we’re looking at peak performance here.

The first test is the new AnandTech front page. Here we’ve got tons of images and HTML, meaning we’re stressing both bandwidth and code parsing speed.

The iPhone 4 is no faster than the 3GS (actually slightly slower, but we'll chalk that up to timing variance) here. The Froyo update to the Nexus One makes it lightning quick, almost as fast as the iPad in our first test.

Next up we have the first page of our recent Zotac XBOX HD-ID11 review. The balance shifts from tons of images to more HTML processing:

Here we see more of what I expected: the iPhone 4 is around 25% faster than the 3GS running iOS 4. Android 2.2 running on the Nexus One is basically as fast as the 4.

Using our Print this Review function, this next test loads our entire 2010 15-inch Macbook Pro review. While the other two tests had some flash ad content, this one is completely devoid of it so the HTC phones shouldn’t be penalized:

Here the iPhone 4 is 11% faster than the 3GS and about the speed of the iPad. There are other bottlenecks at play here so we don't get further performance scaling. The Froyo update helps the Nexus One a bit but the iOS devices are still quicker.

Our most intensive test is up next with a load of the Engadget front page:

The Nexus One is ahead of the 4 once more with its Froyo update. And the iPhone 4 is 34% faster than the 3GS.

Our most CPU bound test is up next. I put together a custom page with a ton of tabular content and a single page copy of our 15-inch MBP review to make the load take some time at least.

Surprisingly enough there's no difference between the 3GS and the 4 here, perhaps my test is less CPU bound than I thought. Froyo improves the Nexus One's performance a little bit.

Low Level Synthetic Tests

If we assume that we’re mostly CPU bound in all of these cases (a fair assumption given how fast Atom can run through all of these tests), then we’d be looking at a ~750MHz clock speed for the iPhone 4’s A4 assuming no other architectural changes. That’s actually a pretty big assumption. The A4 is widely believed to be a 45nm SoC using an ARM Cortex A8. At 45nm there should be room for a larger L2 cache than what was used in the iPhone 3GS’s SoC.

Perhaps some more synthetic tests will help us figure out what’s going on. I turned to Geekbench, now available in an iOS version.

Geekbench spit out a number of overall results that gave me a good enough summary of what’s going on to make an educated guess:

The CPU specific tests all indicate the iPhone 4 is around 25% faster than the iPhone 3GS. That would imply at least a 750MHz clock speed if all else is the same. Assuming we don’t get perfect CPU scaling with all of these tests, I’d venture a guess that 800MHz is more accurate. If the A4 does indeed have larger caches however, Apple could get away with a lower clock speed.

The memory results are particularly telling as they all scale very well going to the iPhone 4, better than the CPU results in fact. This could lend credibility to the theory of larger internal caches or perhaps to an improved (faster) memory subsystem.

Unfortunately until we get the iPad on iOS 4 we can't get a better idea of CPU scaling. I'm not even sure how reliable that will be at this point. If Apple was willing to change the amount of memory the A4 package housed between the iPad and iPhone 4, who is to say that it wouldn't have a slightly different design for the iPhone 4 (e.g. larger caches). The designs may not be physically different but we may instead be looking at binning. Given Apple's unwillingness to talk about the architecture here I think the safest bet is that we're looking at an 800MHz ARM Cortex A8 core in the iPhone 4 and a 1GHz core in the iPad.

Why the lower clock? It's all about battery life.

Source: http://www.anandtech.com/show/3794/the-iphone-4-review/12

Ứng dụng Google Docs trong khảo sát trực tuyến

Google Docs thường được biết đến như bộ công cụ Office miễn phí của Google cho phép người dùng chỉnh sửa, chia sẻ dữ liệu trên nền các ứng dụng văn phòng như Word, Excel và PowerPoint. Tuy nhiên, bài viết này sẽ giới thiệu về một ứng dụng hữu ích khác của Google Docs trong việc thực hiện các khảo sát, điều tra trực tuyến.

Nguồn: http://omt4you.elearn.vn

Để có thể sử dụng được ứng dụng Google Docs, trước hết cần đăng nhập với tài khoản Google theo đường dẫn: docs.google.com

Để bắt đầu tạo phiếu điều tra, cần truy cập menu “Create new” sau đó chọn định dạng “Form”

Giao diện tạo câu hỏi mới trong phiếu điều tra:

Các loại câu hỏi cung cấp trong Google Docs/Form

Để thêm câu hỏi mới. chọn “Add new item”

Để tiếp tục soạn thảo/chỉnh sửa câu hỏi mới, di chuột vào câu hỏi đó và chọn vào biểu tượng chỉnh sửa (Edit) có hình cái bút

Trong quá trình soạn thảo câu hỏi, nhớ thường xuyên chọn lệnh “Save” để bảo vệ thành quả của bạn.

Sau khi soạn thảo xong các câu hỏi, đóng cửa sổ soạn thảo để quay trở về giao diện chính của Google Docs. Khi đó, phiếu điều tra của bạn sẽ được hiển thị trong danh mục file.

Khi phiếu điều tra được mở, chọn vào menu “Form” để thực hiện các tác vụ tiếp theo.

Đến đây chúng ta đã hoàn tất việc soạn thảo mẫu phiếu điều tra và gửi link đến khách hàng. Chúc các bạn ứng dụng thành công công cụ này.

The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm 11 - Summary: The Key Role of Leverage

By David Maister

Perhaps the most significant management variable to be disclosed by the previous analysis is the choice of the mix of projects undertaken and the implications this has for the (average) project team (i.e., leverage) structure. As we have seen, this latter variable is a significant force in influencing the economics of the firm, its organizational structure and its positioning in the client and people markets. The leverage structure, in the sense used in this book (the average or typical proportion of time required from professionals at different levels) has not been a variable that is routinely monitored by firm management. However, as we have shown, its role in balancing the firm is critical.

It is possible, and not uncommon, for the firm’s project team structure to change over time. If it is possible to deliver the firm’s services with a greater proportion of juniors, this will (in general) reduce the costs of the project. Competition in the market for the firm’s services will, over time, require the firm to seek out lower costs for projects of a particular type, and there will often be opportunities for an increasing proportion of juniors to be used on projects that, in the past, required a high proportion of senior time. What in past years had the characteristics of a Brain Surgeon project may, in future years, be accomplishable as a procedural or Pharmacy project.

When considering new projects to undertake, it is usually more profitable for the firm to engage in one similar to that recently performed for a previous client. The knowledge, expertise and basic approaches to the problem that were developed (often through significant personal and financial investment) can be capitalized upon by bringing them to bear on a similar or related problem. Frequently the second project can be billed out to the client at a similar (or only slightly lower) cost, since the client perceives (and receives) something equally custom-tailored: the solution to his problem. However, the savings in costs incurred by the firm in delivering this customization are not all shared with the client (if, indeed, any are). The firm thus makes its most money by “leading the market”: being able to sell as a fully customized service (at a fully customized price) what increasingly becomes a service with reproducible, standardized elements.

While it is in the best interests of the firm that similar or repetitive engagements be undertaken, this is often not in accord with the desires of the individuals involved. Most individuals that join consulting firms do so out of the desire for professional challenge and variety and the avoidance of routine and repetition. While they may be content to undertake a similar project for the second or third time, they will not be for the fourth or sixth or eighth.

The solution, of course, is to convert the past experience and expertise of the individual into the expertise of the firm by accepting the similar project but utilizing a greater proportion of juniors on second- or third-time projects. Apart from requiring a lesser commitment of time from the experienced seniors, this device serves the admirable purpose of training the juniors.

For all these reasons, we might suspect that, over time, the proportion of juniors to seniors required by the firm in a particular practice area will tend to increase. If this is allowed to proceed without corresponding adjustments in the range of practice areas, the basic project team structure of the firm will alter, with significant impacts on the economics and organization of the firm. The dangers of failing to monitor the leverage structure are thus clearly revealed.

Figure 1

Different Types of Practices

Figure 2

Guru Associates

Figure 3

The Consequences of Guru Associates’ Promotion Policies

Figure 4

The Economics of Guru Associates – 5 years later

The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm 10 - Growth and Profitability

By David Maister

Before we leave the topic of growth, we should take a quick peek back at Guru Associates. How did its growth contribute to its profitability? Let us perform our analysis on the basis of constant (year zero) dollars, to remove the effect of inflation. By implication, this means that the salaries and billing rates at each staff level remain the same. What does the firm’s P&L now look like? Figure 1-8 repeats the analysis of Figure 1-6 using year-five staffing levels instead of year zero.

The result? Per-partner profits have not increased! In fact, they have remained precisely the same!

What this simple example shows is that there is no necessary relationship between growth and profits. As we have seen, growth in a professional firm is driven primarily by the need to attract and retain staff, and is critical for that reason, but it is not a guarantee of higher per-partner profits.

Why is this so? We shall explore the reasoning in greater detail in subsequent chapters, but the basic fact is this. If a firm grows subject to two conditions, as Guru Associates has, whereby (a) the mix of client projects (and hence fee levels) remains the same; and (b) the project staffing (or leverage) is such that the same proportion of senior or partner time is required to handle each project, then the number of seniors or partners that the firm requires will correspond exactly to the growth rate. In consequence of this, the profit pool may increase because of the higher volume, but it must be shared among a correspondingly increased number of partners.

If per-partner profits are to increase, then one of the two conditions must be broken. Either the firm must bring in a different mix of business commanding higher billing rates (i.e., find higher-value work for its people to do) or it must find ways to serve the same kinds of work with an ever-increasing proportion of junior time and a declining proportion of senior time.

It is an interesting observation to note that few prominent consulting firms act as if growth were profit-neutral. Indeed, rapid growth is often listed as a primary goal of the firm, and advances in top-line growth are used as a primary internal and external measure of success. If justified in the name of providing career opportunities for staff, this indeed makes sense. However, if desired on profitability grounds, it looks like many consulting firms are fooling themselves!

The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm 09 - Guru Associates: A Numerical Example

By David Maister

Let’s consider a numerical example (Figure 2) to see how the forces at work in a consulting firm interrelate. Guru Associates, which engages in a variety of projects, nevertheless has a “typical” project that requires 50 percent of a senior’s time, 100 percent of a middle-level person’s time, and the full-time efforts of three juniors. In order for the firm to meet its economic goals, it requires that seniors and managers be engaged in billable work for 75 percent of their time, and juniors 90 percent.

Guru Associates currently has four seniors. If it is to meet its target of 75 percent billed senior time, its available senior time will be four multiplied by 75 percent, or the equivalent of three seniors working full-time. This implies six projects if the typical project requires 50 percent of a senior’s time.

With six projects, the firm needs the equivalent of six full-time middle-level staff according to the project team structure. (Each project requires 100 percent of a middle-level person’s time.) At 75 percent target utilization (billed hours divided by available hours), this means that the firm must have eight middle-level staff (6 × 0.75). Similarly, at three juniors per project, the firm needs 18 full-time juniors (at 90 percent billability, that means 20 juniors).

Simple calculations such as these show that, with eight seniors, the firm would need 16 managers and 40 juniors. The proportions remain constant: one senior to every two managers and every five juniors. Unless there is a change in either the project team structure (e.g., the types of projects the firm undertakes) or the target utilization (matters that will be discussed below), the firm must keep these ratios constant as it grows.

This seemingly simple-minded calculation relating the staffing mix requirements of the work to the staffing levels existing in the firm is in fact of extreme importance.

If we know the salaries of the staff members and their billing rates, we can construct the pro forma income statement of this firm at full utilization. (Figure 3)

The role of leverage is amply illustrated by Guru Associates. The four seniors (partners) personally bill a total of $1,200,000, or $300,000 each. At per-professional overhead costs of $40,000 (including the costs of all secretaries, administrative staff, space, supplies, etc.), this would result in a per-partner profit of $260,000 if these seniors were totally unleveraged.

With a healthy seven staff members per senior, partner profits now total $420,000 each. About 60 percent of each partner’s profit comes not from what he or she bills but from the profit generated by the nonpartner group. Thus the benefits of leverage!

It should be immediately stressed that high leverage is not always good. As we have already observed, having high leverage is completely inappropriate if the firm has a high level of Brain Surgery or Psychotherapy work. What we can say is that leverage should be as high as the requirements of the work allow.

We now turn to Guru Associates’ position in the market for staff. Guru Associates has the following promotion policies: It considers that it requires four years for a junior to acquire the expertise and experience to perform the middle-level function, and it expects to promote 80 percent of its candidates to this position. A lower percentage would be insufficient to attract new juniors, and a higher percentage would imply that insufficient screening was taking place (i.e., that there was no room for hiring mistakes). From middle level to senior is also expected to take four years, but because fewer candidates develop the critical client relations skills that Guru Associates requires, on average only 50 percent of the candidates make it.

We shall now trace the evolution of Guru Associates over time. Among the eight middle-level staff, we may assume that, since it takes four years to make senior, in any given year there are one-quarter (i.e., two) of these managers in their final year as middle-level staff. If Guru Associates is to abide by its promotion policies, then it can expect to promote 50 percent, (i.e., one candidate) in that year. Whether by firm policy or by the personal decision of the individual, the nonpromoted candidate will leave the firm. (Note that this result tends to happen in most consulting firms regardless of whether the firm has an up-or-out policy. Middle-level staff may, if allowed, hang on for another year or two, but most eventually leave if not promoted. As we shall see, there is a strong incentive for the firm to encourage them to leave, since they are occupying a slot eagerly being sought by the juniors coming up behind them.)

Counting both those promoted and those leaving, we have reduced the number of middle-level staff by two and increased the number of seniors by one. Since we now have five seniors, we require ten middle-level staff (unless the mix of project types changes), and have six remaining. We must seek out four new middle-level staff from among our juniors. Of the 20 in the firm, we assume one-quarter (five) will be in their final year as juniors. Since our expectation (or policy) is to promote 80 percent at this level, we will indeed promote four out of the five to fill our four available slots. (The fact that these figures match is not, of course, fortuitous. The percentage that can be promoted at a lower level is determined by the shape of the professional pyramid.) Like the “passed over” middle-level staff person, the fifth junior may reasonably be assumed to leave the firm.

We now have 15 juniors left. However, with five seniors and ten managers, the firm requires 25 juniors: it must hire ten. These changes are summarized in Figure 1-7, which follows the same logic for years one through nine.

In year five, the first batch of middle-level staff that were promoted from junior in year one will be ready to be considered for promotion to senior. It will be recalled that there are four of them. If promotion opportunities are to be maintained, then 50 percent will be promoted (i.e., two) and two will leave. This creates a total of ten seniors. With a total of ten seniors in year five, 20 middle-level staff are required. Of the 16 in the firm the previous year, four have been promoted or have left, meaning that a total of eight juniors must be promoted. Fortunately (but not fortuitously) there are 10 juniors who were hired in year 1, and are to be considered for promotion. The expected 80 percent target may be maintained!

What must be stressed at this point is that we have arrived at these staffing levels solely by considering the interaction of the firm’s leverage structure with the promotion incentives (career opportunities) that the firm promises. What we have discovered by performing these calculations is that the interaction of these two forces determines a target (or required) growth rate for the firm. As Figure 1-7 shows, Guru Associates must double in size every four years solely to preserve its promotion incentives. If it grows at a lower rate than this, then either it will remove much of the incentive in the firm or will end up with an “unbalanced factory” (too many seniors and not enough juniors) with a consequent deleterious effect upon the firm’s economics.

If the firm attempts to grow faster than this target rate, it will be placed in the position of either having to promote a higher proportion of juniors or to promote them in a shorter period of time. Without corresponding adjustments, this could have a significant impact on the quality of services that the firm provides.

We have seen that the leverage structure and the promotion policies together determine a target (required) growth rate. It should be acknowledged, however, that there is another way of looking at the relationship between these variables. An equivalent way of stating the relationship would be to observe that, if given a growth rate and a leverage structure, the promotion incentives that result can be specified. We may see this by examining Figure 8 once more. Suppose that we had constructed this by specifying the growth rate and the project team structure. We would then have discovered that we could afford to promote only four out of five juniors and one out of two managers. We would also have discovered that we would have a built-in, or target, turnover rate averaging over 4 percent (two resignations per year for the first four years, while the average number of nonsenior staff was 45.5).

In this example, Guru Associates can achieve what would be considered an extremely low target turnover rate if it achieves its optimal growth. However, the norm in many consulting firms is a much higher rate than this, often reaching as high as 20 to 25 percent or even 30 percent. The key point to note here is that, given a growth rate and an organizational structure, the target turnover rate of the firm can be specified. (This does not, of course, tell us what the actual turnover experience of the firm will be. We are considering here the turnover that the firm requires to keep itself in balance. While it may be able, through its promotion system, to ensure that the actual rate does not get too low, it may have to use other devices to ensure that the actual turnover rate does not get too high through too many people quitting.)

In most professions, one or more firms can be identified that have clearly chosen a high target rate of turnover. Under this scenario partners (or shareholders) can routinely earn a surplus value from the juniors without having to “repay” them in the form of promotion. This high turnover rate also allows a significant degree of screening so that only the best stay in the organization. Not surprisingly, firms following this strategy tend to be among the most prestigious in their industry.

This last comment gives us the clue as to why such firms are able to maintain this strategy over time. Individuals continue to join these organizations, knowing that the odds of “making it” are very low. In the eyes of many potential recruits, the experience, training and association with the prestigious firms in the industry make the poor promotion opportunities at such firms worthwhile.

Young professionals view a short period of time at such firms as a form of “post-post-graduate” degree, and often leave for prime positions they could not have achieved (as quickly) by another route. Indeed, most of the prestige firms following this strategy not only encourage this but provide active “outplacement” assistance. Apart from the beneficial effects that such activities provide in recruiting the next generation of juniors, such alumni/ae are often the source of future business for the firm when they recommend to their corporate employers hiring their old firm (which they know and understand) over other competitors.

The ability to place ex-staff in prestigious positions is thus one of the prerequisites of a successful churning strategy. (An exception might be provided by those professions where legal requirements such as professional certification necessitate that juniors spend time in a firm. However, even here the prestige firms provide active outplacement assistance.)

The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm 08 - Structural Trends

By David Maister

Two trends suggest where the bulk of the market lies. First, clients are buying fewer services as if their problem is totally unique. They more frequently want to tap into a firm’s accumulated experience and methodologies in order to benefit from the efficiencies that come from dealing with providers who have done it before. They are buying less brain surgery and more aspirin. (The widespread use of technology also has the effect of allowing complex analyses formerly performed by Brain Surgeons to be conducted by junior staff, thus reinforcing this trend.)

Second, clients are increasingly reluctant to say to their professionals, “You take care of things and report back when it is done.” More and more, clients want to be involved in the process, or at a minimum be kept informed of their options, kept up-to-date on progress and assisted in understanding what is going on and why.

From these two trends, we can hypothesize that the bulk of the market is moving towards Nursing (established, proven procedures with high client contact) and away from Brain Surgery. As reflected by the amount of price competition in most professions, the Pharmacy also represents a high percentage of fees. While critical, the role of Psychotherapist is not a high-volume area. It is filled with those few individuals who have sufficiently earned their clients’ trust and confidence so that, whenever the client has a problem, the Psychotherapist is called in to diagnose what is needed.

Most professional firms put new entry-level people to work in the Pharmacy first, so they can learn the key technical skills of their profession. As time progresses, people have historically moved in one of two directions, either following the technical career path to Brain Surgeon or the client contact career path to Nurse.

Psychotherapists have tended to evolve from the more creative Nurses, although not all Nurses can make the transition to being accepted as the client’s prime diagnostician. While it is possible for Brain Surgeons to become Psychotherapists, it is rarer. Unless a professional learns the basic client contact skills early in his or her career, they are difficult to develop later.

This traditional approach to career development (often called “paying your dues”) is increasingly under attack. Consider the Pharmacy service. Under the traditional career model, the aspirin is being dispensed by professionals temporarily working in the Pharmacy, serving their time until they are promoted to a higher-level service. This method of having the aspirin dispensed by “Brain Surgeons in training” is not entirely aligned with the clients’ interests.

Unlike the Brain Surgeon firm, which can only afford to hire the best and brightest from the top schools, a focused Pharmacy practice would, appropriately, view these as the wrong people to bring in. Not only do they command higher salaries, but their superior intellect may be inappropriate for the service the Pharmacy is trying to provide. If a firm’s business is making hamburgers, it will not want to hire people who are dreaming of the day they can leave and become Cordon Blue chefs. It will want and need people who are excited about hamburgers.

A focused Pharmacy practice should be able to hire people without a formal education in its specific area, since smart people can learn to apply well-defined methodologies and tools. Training and development should be structured and formal to ensure that new people can quickly learn to apply the firm’s established methodologies. (This is exactly what is happening in some management consulting firms, which now hire people with degrees in such diverse fields such as anthropology and liberal arts.)

Employees in the Pharmacy are not promised a fast-track promotion and career path. In fact, there should be no traditional “up-or-out” policy. (This is one reason why the big accounting firms, increasingly realizing that much of their business is Pharmacy, have recently moved away from such policies).

The Nursing practice requires capable people who are not only able to apply methodologies but who are able to work well with clients. One common approach is to hire individuals who have prior industry experience working in client environments in order to maximize the chance that these individuals can empathize with the client situation.

The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm 07 - Ownership and Governance

By David Maister

Among the many things that are affected by the market positioning (i.e., mix of services) of the firm are ownership and governance. The traditional model in consulting has been a privately held partnership, with all significant decisions being made after extensive consultation with the senior group. This model matches well with a Brain Surgery or Psychotherapy practice, which requires significant power and autonomy to be left in the hands of the senior practitioners. A related, but different, part of the partnership tradition is that senior people are rewarded by the income they derive during their time at the firm, and not from the increase in the value of the firm itself. (Many firms transfer their ownership between generations through an “in and out at book-value” system.) Ownership is restricted to those currently practicing within the firm.

However, recent years have seen the emergence of publicly held consulting firms. Theoretically, there is nothing in the corporate form or in public ownership that would prevent the preservation of a “partnership ethos,” with decision making through extensive consultation and the retention of significant autonomy for senior practitioners. However, when a firm has gone public, the value of the shares (and hence the company) takes on a greater significance, and this inevitably affects the process of decision making. A greater emphasis is given to building the systems of the firm to embed value in the firm, not just in the individuals who belong to it, and this often leads to greater codification. It is easier to “own” a chain of pharmacies than a rambunctious group of brain surgeons and psychotherapists.